Our editorial perspective
Sources
Every claim in the guide is tied to a source. They are listed here in full, in the order they appear in the guide.
- 1
World Health Organization. WHO recommendations on maternal and newborn care for a positive postnatal experience. Geneva: WHO; 2022. ISBN 978-92-4-004598-9. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789240045989 - 2
World Health Organization. Infant and young child feeding. Updated 2026. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/infant-and-young-child-feeding - 3
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Providing Care for Babies to Sleep Safely. Updated September 17, 2024. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.cdc.gov/sudden-infant-death/sleep-safely/index.html - 4
Moon RY, Carlin RF, Hand I; AAP Task Force on SIDS. Sleep-Related Infant Deaths: Updated 2022 Recommendations for Reducing Infant Deaths in the Sleep Environment. Pediatrics. 2022;150(1):e2022057990. DOI: 10.1542/peds.2022-057990. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/150/1/e2022057990/188304/ - 5
National Institute for Health and Care Excellence. Postnatal care (NG194): Recommendations. 2021, updated 2026. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.nice.org.uk/guidance/ng194/chapter/recommendations - 6
Moore ER, et al. Immediate or early skin-to-skin contact for mothers and their healthy newborn infants. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. Updated 2025; CD003519. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.cochrane.org/evidence/CD003519_what-known-about-benefits-immediate-or-early-skin-skin-contact-mothers-and-babies - 7
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Newborn Breastfeeding Basics. Reviewed October 18, 2024. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.cdc.gov/infant-toddler-nutrition/breastfeeding/newborn-basics.html - 8
National Health Service. Breastfeeding: Is My Baby Getting Enough Milk? Current web guidance. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.nhs.uk/baby/breastfeeding-and-bottle-feeding/breastfeeding-problems/enough-milk/ - 9
U.S. Food and Drug Administration. Handling Infant Formula Safely: What You Need to Know. Updated May 17, 2024. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.fda.gov/food/buy-store-serve-safe-food/handling-infant-formula-safely-what-you-need-know - 10
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Breast Milk Storage and Preparation. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.cdc.gov/breastfeeding/breast-milk-preparation-and-storage/handling-breastmilk.html - 11
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Vitamin D. Updated April 14, 2026. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.cdc.gov/infant-toddler-nutrition/vitamins-minerals/vitamin-d.html - 12
Government of Jamaica, Ministry of Health. National Infant and Young Child Feeding Policy. Revised draft, June 2014. Historical policy context only; not current guidance or prevalence evidence. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://jis.gov.jm/media/NIYCF-Policy.pdf - 13
Datnow-Martinez C, Ransom B, Niranjan SJ, Howard C, Aung M, Jolly PE. Factors affecting infant feeding choices with a focus on barriers to exclusive breastfeeding in Western Jamaica: a qualitative study. International Breastfeeding Journal. 2024;19:63. DOI: 10.1186/s13006-024-00671-8. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Suzuki S. Single Center Analysis of Japanese Homecoming Delivery and Postpartum Depression. JMA Journal. 2022;5(3):362–365. DOI: 10.31662/jmaj.2022-0069. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Yang X, Qiu M, Yang Y, Yan J, Tang K. Maternal postnatal confinement practices and postpartum depression in Chinese populations: a systematic review. PLOS ONE. 2023;18:e0293667. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0293667. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Iwuagwu AO. “ m gw ” As Unpaid Labor? The Perceptions of Older Women on Traditional Postpartum Caregiving in Southeast Nigeria. SAGE Open Nursing. 2023;9. DOI: 10.1177/23779608231218264. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Chaturvedi S, et al. Prevalence and perceptions of infant massage in India: study from Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh states. BMC Pediatrics. 2020;20:512. DOI: 10.1186/s12887-020-02416-y. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Bennett C, Underdown A, Barlow J. Massage for promoting mental and physical health in typically developing infants under the age of six months. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2022;(3):CD005038. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD005038.pub3. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.cochrane.org/evidence/CD005038_massage-promoting-mental-and-physical-health-infants-under-age-six-months - 19
Waugh LJ. La Cuarentena: An Ethnographic Study of Mexican Immigrant Families Postpartum. PhD dissertation, University of Colorado Denver; 2010. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://digital.auraria.edu/work/ns/c9944ae5-d63f-4856-8713-cad5aaa054d1 - 20
Abels M, Bosy C, Fredriksen I-CM. Napping alone in the snow and cuddling with mommy at night: An exploratory, qualitative study of Norwegian beliefs on infant sleep. Infant Behavior and Development. 2021;65:101656. DOI: 10.1016/j.infbeh.2021.101656. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Pregnancy, Birth and Baby (Australian Government/Healthdirect Australia). Responsive settling. Reviewed April 2025. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/babies/sleep-and-settling/responsive-settling - 22
Whānau Āwhina Plunket. Sleep: Newborn to three months. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.plunket.org.nz/child-development/sleep/newborn-sleep/newborn-to-3-months/ - 23
Wong SD, Wright KP Jr, Spencer RL. Development of the circadian system in early life: maternal and environmental factors. Journal of Physiological Anthropology. 2022;41:22. DOI: 10.1186/s40101-022-00294-0. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9109407/ - 24
Bruzek JL, Thompson RH, Witts BN. A Review of Crying and Caregiving: Crying as a Stimulus. Perspectives on Behavior Science. 2024;47(1):71–105. DOI: 10.1007/s40614-023-00395-w. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC11035526/ - 25
Bouchet H, et al. Baby cry recognition is independent of motherhood but improved by experience and exposure. Proceedings of the Royal Society B. 2020;287:20192499. DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.2499. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Lam TML, Chan PC, Goh LH. Approach to infantile colic in primary care. Singapore Medical Journal. 2019;60(1):12–16. DOI: 10.11622/smedj.2019004. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6351691/ - 27
Jain K, Gunasekaran D, Venkatesh C, Soundararajan P. Gripe Water Administration in Infants 1–6 Months of Age—A Cross-sectional Study. Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research. 2015;9(11):SC06–SC08. DOI: 10.7860/JCDR/2015/13727.6738. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4668494/ - 28
Blumenthal I. The gripe water story. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 2000;93(4):172–174. DOI: 10.1177/014107680009300404. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC1297971/ - 29
The Lullaby Trust. Swaddling. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.lullabytrust.org.uk/baby-safety/baby-product-information/swaddling/ - 30
The Lullaby Trust. How to use a baby sling more safely. Supports TICKS: Tight, In view, Close enough to kiss, Keep chin off chest, Supported back; airway and overheating precautions; take baby out to feed, especially under 4 months or at high risk. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.lullabytrust.org.uk/baby-safety/baby-product-information/slings-and-carriers/ - 31
Pinnock CB, Graham NM, Mylvaganam A, Douglas RM. Relationship between milk intake and mucus production in adult volunteers challenged with rhinovirus-2. American Review of Respiratory Disease. 1990;141(2):352–356. DOI: 10.1164/ajrccm/141.2.352. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2154152/ - 32
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Urgent Maternal Warning Signs and Symptoms. Updated May 15, 2024. Supports immediate care for severe or persistent headache, vision changes, fever of at least 38°C, trouble breathing, chest pain or a fast-beating heart, severe abdominal pain, heavy bleeding, one-sided limb swelling or pain, thoughts of harm, and overwhelming weakness; warning signs can occur in the year after birth. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.cdc.gov/hearher/maternal-warning-signs/index.html - 33
National Health Service. Postpartum psychosis. Last reviewed October 18, 2023. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.nhs.uk/mental-health/conditions/post-partum-psychosis/ - 34
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists. Optimizing Postpartum Care. Committee Opinion No. 736. Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2018;131:e140–e150; reaffirmed 2025. DOI: 10.1097/AOG.0000000000002633. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.acog.org/clinical/clinical-guidance/committee-opinion/articles/2018/05/optimizing-postpartum-care - 35
Norland University. Heritage, ethos and vision. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Norland University. Employing a Norland Nanny. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.norland.ac.uk/employing-a-norland-nanny/ - 37
DONA International. Updated Standards of Practice from DONA International. October 21, 2015. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://dona.org/updated-standards-of-practice-from-dona-international/ - 38
Newborn Care Specialist Association. NCSA Scope of Practice. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://newborncarespecialist.org/scope-of-practice/ - 39
International Confederation of Midwives. International Definition and Scope of Practice of the Midwife. Revised 2024. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://internationalmidwives.org/resources/international-definition-of-the-midwife/ - 40
IBCLC Commission. Scope of Practice for IBCLCs. 2018. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://ibclc-commission.org/ibclc-information/scope-of-practice-for-ibclcs/ - 41
Pregnancy, Birth and Baby (Australian Government/Healthdirect Australia). Runny or blocked nose in babies. Reviewed February 2025. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.pregnancybirthbaby.org.au/babies/health-and-wellbeing/runny-or-blocked-nose-in-babies - 42
National Health Service. When to get urgent medical help for babies and children under 5. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.nhs.uk/baby/health/when-to-get-urgent-medical-help-for-babies-and-children-under-5/ - 43
American Academy of Pediatrics. Umbilical Cord Care in Newborns. HealthyChildren.org. Updated July 6, 2025. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/baby/bathing-skin-care/Pages/umbilical-cord-care.aspx - 44
Wolfe-Sherrie EJ, Perroni-Marañón AG, Núñez-de la Mora A, Piperata BA. “Hey child, why were you born when the world is almost over?”: An analysis of first-time mothers’ postpartum experiences during the early stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in Coatepec, Veracruz, Mexico. Maternal and Child Health Journal. 2022;26(8):1732–1740. DOI: 10.1007/s10995-022-03405-6. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9213642/ - 45
Xin JKY, Shian GY, Han TT, San WTW. Experiences of postpartum Chinese women undergoing confinement practices: A qualitative meta-synthesis. International Journal of Nursing Practice. 2024;30(6):e13251. DOI: 10.1111/ijn.13251. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ijn.13251 - 46
Yeh Y-C, St John W, Venturato L. Doing the month in a Taiwanese postpartum nursing center: An ethnographic study. Nursing & Health Sciences. 2014;16(3):343–351. DOI: 10.1111/nhs.12110. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://doi.org/10.1111/nhs.12110 - 47
Wu H-L, Lu D-F, Tsay P-K. Rooming-In and Breastfeeding Duration in First-Time Mothers in a Modern Postpartum Care Center. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 2022;19(18):11790. DOI: 10.3390/ijerph191811790. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191811790 - 48
Hong Kong Department of Health, Family Health Service. Breastfeeding—For Newborn Babies. Revised February 2026. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.fhs.gov.hk/english/health_info/child/12172.html - 49
Raising Children Network. Newborn Sleep: Responsiveness and Routines. Australian Government-supported resource; reviewed November 14, 2025. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://raisingchildren.net.au/newborns/sleep/settling-routines/newborn-sleep-routines - 50
Health New Zealand | Te Whatu Ora. Midwife Visits for the First 6 Weeks. Updated July 22, 2026. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.healthnz.govt.nz/health-topics/pregnancy-maternity/you-and-your-newborn/midwife-visits-first-6-weeks - 51
Norwegian Directorate of Health. Infant Healthcare Program, Age 0–5 Years. Updated August 28, 2023. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.helsenorge.no/en/help-services-in-the-municipalities/infant-healthcare-program-age-0-5-years/ - 52
Tourula M, Isola A, Hassi J, Bloigu R, Rintamäki H. Infants sleeping outdoors in a northern winter climate: Skin temperature and duration of sleep. Acta Paediatrica. 2010;99(9):1411–1417. DOI: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2010.01814.x. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Children and Families Agency, Government of Japan. Prenatal and Postpartum Support Services Guidelines and Postpartum Care Services Guidelines. March 2026. Accessed September 7, 2026.
https://www.cfa.go.jp/assets/contents/node/basic_page/field_ref_resources/ff38becb-bbd1-41f3-a95e-3a22ddac09d8/317bd576/20260331_policies_boshihoken_173.pdf - 54
van Putten A. Formal Handling Routines: Child Rearing Practices in Jamaica and Their Relevance to Rehabilitation Work. In: Disability in Different Cultures. 1999:242–248. DOI: 10.1515/9783839400401-019. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Rowold K. “If We Are to Believe the Psychologists…”: Medicine, Psychoanalysis and Breastfeeding in Britain, 1900–55. Medical History. 2019;63(1):61–81. DOI: 10.1017/mdh.2018.63. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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UK Parliament, House of Commons Library. Government regulation of maternity nurses, nannies and the infant sleep industry. Research Briefing CBP-10860. June 4, 2026. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Foods and Drinks to Avoid or Limit: Honey Before 12 Months. Updated April 14, 2026. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Infant Formula Preparation and Storage. Updated May 14, 2026. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Jamaica Ministry of Health and Wellness. Child Health & Development Passport, Version 15 sample. Posted 2025. The document is labelled a sample; verify the final-issued version immediately before publication. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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National Health Service. Washing and bathing your baby. Page reviewed July 23, 2024; media reviewed October 4, 2025. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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Hugh SC, Wolter NE, Propst EJ, Gordon KA, Cushing SL, Papsin BC. Infant sleep machines and hazardous sound pressure levels. Pediatrics. 2014;133(4):677–681. DOI: 10.1542/peds.2013-3617. PMID: 24590753. Accessed September 7, 2026.
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This guide is educational. It does not replace pediatric, midwifery, obstetric, lactation or emergency care, or individual medical advice. Read the full disclaimer.